Peace of Westphalia (1648). Features of the Westphalian peace system

More than three hundred and sixty years ago, throughout Europe, tired of the long, bloody confrontation between countries, an event occurred that not only extinguished the last sparks of the war, but also determined in many ways the continent. We are talking about the Peace of Westphalia. The agreement was so named because it was concluded in two German cities - Osnabrück and Münster - in 1648. Both belonged to the Westphalian region. The format of such a multilateral treaty was discussed seven years ago, in 1641, in the city of Hamburg. Starting this year, negotiations were carried out, during which the war did not stop. It ended only when the Peace of Westphalia was accepted by all parties. Negotiations were conducted between the imperial ambassadors and the French - in Münster, and the Swedish ambassadors and imperial officials - in the city of Osnabrück.

The Peace of Westphalia was the end of which is notable for the fact that for the first time almost all European countries, including Russia, participated in it. Switzerland was the exception. It began as a confrontation between representatives of the two main European religions at that time - Catholicism supported by Rome and “heretical” Protestantism - and ended as resistance to power

The Peace of Westphalia was notable for the fact that its adoption required the convening of virtually the first pan-European congress. At it, Protestants received what they had previously dreamed of - equal rights with Catholics, which became possible thanks to the principle of religious tolerance. As a result, the religious and interfaith factor in relations between states has weakened. The principle of “whose country is his faith,” which became the cause of wars between states of different faiths, was abolished. Moreover, the hierarchical European heads were eliminated, according to which the German emperor played the leading role, and the kings were subordinate to him. This was replaced by the principle of state sovereignty. Each of the kings received equal rights with the Emperor of Germany. The new European order originates from here. It must be said that the Peace of Westphalia completely resolved precisely those problems and contradictions that became the cause of the long Thirty Years' War.

However, this agreement was fatal for the previously powerful Europe, which was located in the center. The emperor of this state association was no longer the number one person in Europe, and the kings of neighboring countries received the right to conduct business and enter into alliances without his agreement with the only caveat - “not to the detriment of the interests of the emperor.” In fact, the latter's power throughout Europe, except Germany, was abolished. In addition, the country that he directly ruled lost a number of territories and was soon fragmented into many lands, since such a division was also provided for by the Treaty of Westphalia. After all, not only kings, but also imperial officials received the right to rule at their own discretion and enter into alliances with each other. In fact, the country was fragmented into small independent principalities, the power of the emperor was leveled, and princely tyranny was practically legalized. Over time, each of the small principalities acquired its own currency, which caused problems with trade between these state entities. The unity of Germany was destroyed and restored only at the end of the nineteenth century. The cities of Verden, Wismar and Bremen, as well as the mouth of the Oder River, and a large part of Pomerania became the possession of the Swedish crown. In addition, Switzerland gained complete independence.

The Peace of Westphalia became the basis for the vast majority of all subsequent peace treaties, and not only between European countries. It is unlikely that any other agreement has had such a serious impact on the political system of Europe and many other countries. The Westphalian model of the world can be considered as a system of relationships between countries in which the objects are independent powers (and sovereignty is decisive for the state, not the ruler), and as a system of world order in which the actors are independent countries.

In 1648, on October 24 and May 15, two documents were signed: the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück. The process of negotiating and signing these treaties was called the Peace of Westphalia. Often the Treaty of the Pyrenees, concluded between Spain and France in 1659 and ending the war, is also included in the process of the Peace of Westphalia.

The Peace of Westphalia put an end to two protracted wars: the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War. The initiator of the signing of peace was the Sacred Church, led by Ferdinand III. The other parties to the agreement were Spain, France, Sweden and the Dutch Republic.

Most scholars and researchers agree that the signing of the Peace of Westphalia was the key historical event that gave rise to the modern system of international relations. Thanks to this agreement, the very concept of a sovereign nation-state with the right to self-determination arose. The principles of the Peace of Westphalia formed the basis for the creation of the United Nations, where all member states have equal rights and a voice in the General Assembly.

By the second half of the twentieth century, it became obvious that the pinnacle of political evolution was the democratic state. Proof of this was the fact that since the founding of the UN, the number of member countries of the union has increased from 50 to 192 in just a couple of years. However, it is worth noting that many states formed through self-determination were artificially created post-colonial structures that continued to act in favor of the interests of the colonist. On the territories of such states, religious, cultural, ethnic and other traditions were gradually replaced by traditions brought by the colonialists from outside. Such trends did not contribute to the unity of society and allowed yesterday's colonialists to continue to pursue their economic interests in relation to the former colonies.

The desire for independence was so strong that countries inspired by this possibility did not even consider alternatives such as confederation. The process of decolonization has taken over the world. The Treaty of Westphalia established the principles of respect for territorial integrity for states, however, it did not stop imperial expansion. European empires played a double game, applying some rules for themselves and others for peoples outside Europe, whose lands could easily be appropriated, plundered and exploited.

Thus, the system of international relations established by the Peace of Westphalia found a large number of opponents among people who advocate global governance and fair distribution of the Earth's resources between all states on equal terms. Westphalian principles made it possible to manipulate international law to suit their state interests. European states tended to prevent any attempt to seize power from outside, calling it a violation of their sovereign rights. At the same time, allowing themselves to violate the sovereign rights of other countries, which essentially accept external control under the guise of international norms. In Europe, the European Union began to develop, which gradually took on the function of a universal European government. However, many of its member states resist it, seeing it as a threat to their sovereignty.

Location

Peace talks took place in the cities of Münster and Osnabrück, which are located approximately 50 kilometers apart in Germany's North Rhine and Lower Saxony. These cities were proposed by Sweden, while France insisted on holding the meeting in Hamburg and Cologne. In any case, two cities were needed for negotiations because the Protestant and Catholic leaders refused to meet with each other. Münster was chosen for Catholics, and Osnabrück for Protestants.

Outcomes of the peace agreements

He was deprived of the power he had assumed by violating the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire. This equalized the rights of all German rulers, who could now independently choose the religion for their lands. The new law proclaimed equality between Protestants and Catholics, and Calvinism received legal recognition.

The parties accepted the terms of the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, according to which each duke now had the right to choose a religion for his state from the established options: Catholicism, Protestantism (Lutheranism), and now Calvinism. The law defined religious freedom for Christians and protected their right to practice their faith in public places.

The drafter of the Treaty of Westphalia is considered to be Cardinal Mazarin, who was the de facto leader of France while Louis XIV was still a child. This explains the fact that for France the terms of the peace treaty provided a better position than for other participants in the war. France gained control of the bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun, located in Lorraine. The Hamburg lands of Alsace also passed to her.

Sweden was compensated for the damage and also gained control of the lands of Western Pomerania and the Bishopric of Bremen. Thus, Sweden's influence extended to the mouths of the Oder, Elbe and Weser rivers, and it received three seats in the Council of Princes of the German Reichstag.

Ferdinand V's son and heir, Ludwig I, was restored to his rights as Count Palatine of Bavaria. Brandenburg (later Prussia) received the lands of Farther Pomerania and the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halberstadt, Cammin and Minden.

The issue of inheriting the territory of the late Duke of Kleve-Jülich Berg was resolved. The duchies of Jülich and Berg passed to the Palatine County of Neuburg, and Kleve, Ravensberg and Brandenburg to Prussia. Trade bans imposed during the war were lifted and "Free Navigation" was guaranteed on the Rhine.

Significance of the Peace of Westphalia

Traditionally, the Peace of Westphalia is considered to be of decisive importance for modern international relations theory. It had several key principles that still apply today almost unchanged.

• The principle of state sovereignty and the right to political self-determination.
• The principle of legal equality between states.
• The principle of non-interference of one state in the internal affairs of another.

These principles are called the "Westphalian System" and they represent the paradigm of modern international relations. This system has many critics, but over the many centuries of its existence it has shown high efficiency and has been able to regulate relations between the key states of Europe and the world. Among other things, the modern interstate legal system was born on the basis of the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia.

The Thirty Years' War was the first war on a pan-European scale. Many states participated in it, directly or indirectly. In the war, two lines of political development in Europe collided: the Medieval Catholic tradition and a single pan-European Christian monarchy. Austria and Spain on the one hand and England, France, Holland, Sweden on the other.

· Internal struggle in Germany. 1608-1609 – 2 military-political unions of German princes on a confessional basis (Evangelical Union and Catholic League), this conflict turned into an international one.

· Confrontation between France and the coalition of Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, who claimed a special role in European politics. (plus old disputed territories - Alsace and Lorraine)

4 periods:

· Czech, Danish, Swedish, French-Swedish

The medieval political tradition, embodied in the desire to create a single pan-European Christian monarchy, where the concepts of “state” and “interests of the nation” were in no way combined, was associated with the policies of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs. They also led the Catholic reaction on a European scale. Another principle of political development was inherent in England, France, Holland and Sweden. He envisioned the creation of strong states on a national basis. In the named centralized states, except for France, the Protestant religion predominated. The economic development of the opposing blocs proceeded differently. The anti-Habsburg bloc included countries where the capitalist system was expanding.

The main conflict in the political life of Western Europe was still the confrontation between France and the coalition of Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. Both the Habsburgs and France, which had become a powerful absolutist state during the reign of Cardinal Richelieu, claimed a special role in European politics. It was in France's interests to keep the empire fragmented and prevent the two Habsburg monarchies from uniting their actions. The specific interests of different European countries and their common desire to stop the hegemonic goals of the Habsburgs determined the participation of each of them in the war at its different periods.

Reasons for ending The mutual exhaustion of the warring parties, the absolute ruin of the population of Germany, where the main military operations took place, and, as a consequence, the impossibility of supporting the armies, and finally, the increase in social tension in the warring countries themselves led to the need to end the war.

The peace, which went down in history as the Peace of Westphalia, was concluded on October 24, 1648, simultaneously in the cities of Münster and Osnabrück (Westphalia - a land in what was then Germany). It not only recorded specific territorial and political-legal agreements, but also summed up the century-long religious confrontation in Europe and led to a new balance of power on the continent. The purpose of the peace congress, which ended with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, was to establish peace and resolve the international, confessional, and intra-imperial levels.

Each country participating in the congress pursued your goals: France - to break the encirclement of the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs, Sweden - to achieve hegemony in the Baltic, the Holy Roman Empire and Spain - to achieve smaller territorial concessions.

The concluded agreements included issues of territorial changes in Europe, the political structure of the German Empire, religion on its territory, and consolidating the independence of Holland and Switzerland.

The Peace of Westphalia legally secured the political fragmentation of Germany for two centuries, effectively ensuring the sovereignty of the German princes. Sweden joined the empire as the sovereign of the received imperial possessions with the right to send its deputies to the Reichstag. Trusteeship of a number of imperial cities allowed France to interfere in the affairs of the empire.

In the religious field, the Peace of Westphalia equalized the rights of Calvinists with Catholics and Lutherans in Germany, giving Calvinism the status of an officially recognized confession. The secularization of church lands, carried out before 1624, was legalized, but new seizures of church lands were prohibited.

The Swiss Union, officially removed from the empire, and the Republic of the United Provinces (appeared as a result of the struggle in the Netherlands against Spain) received international recognition of state sovereignty.

The war turned into a real tragedy for Germany, especially for the peoples inhabiting those territories that were the direct theater of military operations. It left behind hunger, ruin, and the devastation of entire regions. The reduction in population several times (for example, in the Czech Republic by more than 3 times, in some places in Germany by 5-10 times), the destruction of material and cultural values, the decline and cessation of production led to a long-term socio-economic crisis in Germany.

All in all, as a result of the war, the countries of the anti-Habsburg coalition won. For the French monarchy, the successful completion of the Thirty Years' War and the war with Spain (ended with the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees on November 7, 1659, according to which France consolidated most of its conquests in the southern Netherlands and on the Iberian border and pledged not to provide assistance to Portugal, which was at war with Spain) was the start of the struggle for European hegemony. Sweden emerged as a European power and its priority in Northern Europe became clear. By finally establishing independence from Spain, Holland created the conditions for economic growth, the struggle for colonies and a change in its political weight in European affairs. But the Austrian monarchy itself did not lose the war and the German princes, both Catholic and Protestant, established themselves in full sovereignty.

The Thirty Years' War ended a century-long period of acute confessional confrontation in Europe. The religious factor has ceased to play a significant role in international relations. The results of the Thirty Years' War proved the prospects for political prosperity of centralized nation states (France, England, Holland, Sweden), but the most important problem of creating nation states on the site of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation remained unresolved.

The Peace of Westphalia completely changed the foreign policy situation in Europe, creating a different balance of power, different political priorities and value guidelines, and introduced an international legal framework into the system of European international relations, determining their nature for the next century and a half.

Religious disputes are a thing of the past and the true state interests, goals and mutual contradictions of the countries that previously formed one camp were revealed. The trade and economic confrontation came to the fore, primarily between the young capitalist countries of England and Holland with France and Spain, as well as each of these countries with each other.

The significance of the Peace of Westphalia primarily lay in the fact that it resolved the contradictions that led to the Thirty Years' War:

The Peace of Westphalia equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants (Calvinists and Lutherans), legalized the confiscation of church lands carried out before 1624, and abolished the previously existing principle of “whose power is his faith,” instead of which the principle of religious tolerance was proclaimed, which subsequently reduced the importance of confessional factor in relations between states;

Changes in the foreign policy situation in Europe, a different balance of power

Introduced an international legal framework into the system of European international organizations

The Peace of Westphalia put an end to the Habsburgs' desire to expand their possessions at the expense of the territories of the states and peoples of Western Europe and undermined the authority of the Holy Roman Empire: from that time on, the old hierarchical order of international relations, in which the German emperor was considered senior in rank among the monarchs, was destroyed and the heads of independent states Europe, who had the title of kings, were equal in rights to the emperor;

According to the norms established by the Peace of Westphalia, the main role in international relations, previously owned by monarchs, passed to sovereign states.

Principles:

priority of national interest

· priority of balance of power

· priority of nation-states

One of the most important events of the 17th century was the 30 Years' War of 1618-1648. Almost all European countries took part in it, and it left behind millions of human victims. The decisive point in this war was set by a treaty called the Peace of Westphalia. Its results were of utmost importance for all subsequent European history. It was concluded on October 15 and 24, 1648, after lengthy negotiations that lasted since 1644 and could not satisfy the conditions of all participants.

1648

He united the Munster and Osnabrück peace treaties, concluded that year in Westphalia. Negotiations were held in the city of Münster with representatives of Catholicism, and in Osnabrück with the Protestant side. Sometimes the treaty concluded on January 30 of the same year by Spain and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, which ended the Eighty Years' War, is also included in the Peace of Westphalia, since researchers consider the struggle between these states to be part of the Thirty Years' War.

What were the combined treaties?

The Treaty of Osnabrück was an agreement made between Sweden and its allies.

The Roman Empire signed the Munster agreement with France and those countries that supported it (these included Holland, Venice, Savoy, Hungary). It was these two states that took such an active part in the fate of a large part of Europe because in the third and most important, turning point period of the Thirty Years' War, they contributed to the weakening of the Roman forces, which contributed to their fragmentation in the future. The Peace of Westphalia mainly denoted provisions that determined territorial changes, political structure and religious characteristics in the Holy Roman Empire.

Results of the 30 Years' War

How did the confrontation between the countries end? Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Netherlands. Also, according to this document, the countries that won the Thirty Years' War - France and Sweden - were appointed guarantors of peace. These powerful powers controlled the validity of the signed treaty, and without their consent they could not change a single article in it. Thus, all of Europe was reliably protected from any global changes, which could entail a threat to the security of many countries. And since, thanks to the German emperor, he was powerless, the rest of the strong powers could not be afraid of his influence. The Peace of Westphalia contributed to significant territorial redrawings, primarily in favor of the victorious powers of France and Sweden.

One of these dramatic changes on the map was that, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces. This state, having begun its war of liberation against Catholic Spain as a rebellion, received international recognition in 1648.

What did the countries that won the war get?

According to the decision taken at the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, the empire paid Sweden an indemnity amounting to 5 million thalers. In addition, it received the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania and part of Eastern Pomerania (together with Stettin), the city of Wismar, the Bishopric of Verden and the Archbishopric of Bremen (the city of Bremen itself was not included there).

Sweden also inherited the mouths of many navigable rivers in Northern Germany. Having received the German principalities at his disposal, the King of Sweden had the opportunity to send deputies to the Imperial Diet.

The signing of the Peace of Westphalia made it possible for France to receive the Habsburg possessions located in Alsace, although without the city of Strasbourg, as well as sovereignty over several bishoprics in Lorraine. New possessions after the signing of the treaty and the increased influence of the country helped it subsequently take the position of hegemon in Europe.

The German principalities of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Brunswick-Lüneburg and Brandenburg, which supported the victorious countries, also received benefits - they were able to expand their possessions as a result of the annexation of secularized bishoprics and monasteries. As a result of this treaty, Lusatia was annexed to Saxony, and the Upper Palatinate became part of Bavaria. The Elector of Brandegburg also received vast lands into his possession, on which Prussia was later formed.

What did this world bring to the Germans?

The conditions of the Peace of Westphalia were such that the German emperor lost a significant amount of his former rights. At the same time, the German princes became independent from the Roman ruler and were able to pursue independent foreign and domestic policies. For example, they could participate in making decisions regarding the outbreak of war and the conclusion of peace, their department was responsible for determining the amount of taxes, and the adoption of laws in the Roman Empire largely depended on them.

Appanage princes could also enter into treaties with other states. The only thing that was not available to them was concluding alliances with other powers against the ruler of the Roman Empire. In modern terms, after the signing of this treaty, the appanage German princes became subjects of international law and could take an active part in the political life of Europe. The strengthening of their positions contributed to the formation of the federal structure of modern Germany.

Religious life after 1648

As for the religious sphere, as a result of the Peace of Westphalia in Germany, Catholics, Calvinists and Lutherans were equal in rights, and it was also legalized in the 20s of the 17th century. From now on, the electors could not determine for their subjects their religious affiliation. In addition, under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of Holland. Let us remember that the liberation movement in this country began with a protest against Catholic Spain. In essence, this treaty legitimized the political fragmentation of Germany, ending the imperial history of this power.

Thus, the Peace of Westphalia significantly strengthened the power of France, ridding it of its main rival, Spain, which claimed the first role among all European states.

Another important function of this treaty, which historians talk about: it was the basis for all subsequent European agreements until the 18th century, when the French Under the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Northern Netherlands. The Swiss Union has also received international legal recognition.

Significance of the Peace of Westphalia

Thus, this treaty is called the event that marked the beginning of the modern world order, which provides for the presence of nation-states in the world and the operation of certain principles of international law. The principle of political balance probably developed precisely as a result of the emergence of the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. The tradition of solving complex territorial, legal, religious problems in relations between two or more states with the help of the intervention of other strong and influential European powers has appeared since then.

The significance of the 30 Years' War for the formation of the current legal system

The concept of “Westphalian system”, which refers to the field of world law and appeared after 1648, means ensuring the sovereignty of any state on its legal territory. Until the 19th century, the norms of the treaty and the terms of the Peace of Westphalia largely determined the laws

After the appearance of the agreement, the rights of reformed Christianity with traditional Roman Catholic Christianity were especially strengthened, which is important from the point of view of cultural studies. True, many scientists find certain shortcomings in the provisions under which the inhabitants of Germany were supposed to live after the signing of the treaty. Thus, they were forced to profess the religion chosen by the ruler, that is, in essence, there was no freedom of religion yet. But, despite all its shortcomings, the Peace of Westphalia was indeed the first (and successful) attempt to create a system of international law.

In the mid-40s, the opponents entered into negotiations, which ended in 1648 with the signing of a peace treaty in the cities of Osnabrück and Münster in Westphalia, one of the German states. That's why it's called Westphalian 1.

The Peace of Westphalia consolidated the territorial changes that took place in Europe during the Thirty Years' War. They were quite modest. In any case, they could not be compared with the duration and scale of the war, the efforts of governments and the sacrifices of peoples. The largest of the territorial changes occurred in Northern Germany. Sweden received vast lands at the mouths of the largest rivers flowing into the Baltic and North Seas, such as the Oder and Elbe (the Swedes were unable to retain East Prussia and Courland, the ports of which it previously controlled). As a result, Sweden came very close to the foreign policy goal of its ruling circles - turning the Baltic Sea into a “Swedish lake”. France, under the Treaty of Westphalia, somewhat expanded its possessions on the left bank of the Rhine. She achieved recognition of her rights to the fortresses of Metz, Toul and Verdun in Lorraine, which she captured back in 1552. In addition, she annexed small territories in Alsace that previously belonged to the Habsburgs. Due to the (secularized) possessions confiscated from the church, some German states, especially Protestant ones - Brandenburg, Saxony, Braunschweig, etc., expanded their territory, sometimes significantly.

The significance of the Peace of Westphalia lay, first of all, in the fact that it established new rules in relations between states. In the new international order they found permission

1 At Osnabrück negotiations were held between the Holy Roman Emperor and his allies, on the one hand, and Sweden and his allies, on the other, and in Münster between the Emperor and his allies, on the one hand, and France and his allies, on the other.

understanding the contradictions that led to the Thirty Years' War. The Peace of Westphalia equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants (Calvinists and Lutherans). He legalized the confiscation of church lands, carried out before 1624, and abolished the previously valid principle of “whose power is his faith.” German princes were deprived of the right to determine the faith of their subjects. Instead, the principle of religious tolerance was proclaimed, according to which Christians of any religion could freely practice their worship in any part of the Empire. Thus, the Peace of Westphalia drew a line under more than a century of religious wars and created the preconditions for the weakening of religious hostility in Europe. As a result, the importance of the confessional factor in relations between states decreased. This in turn led to a certain de-ideologization of international relations: instead of abstract ideas and the values ​​to which supporters of each of the faiths appealed, the foreign policies of states were based on specific interests.

The Peace of Westphalia put an end to the Habsburgs' desire to subjugate other countries and peoples of Western Europe to their power. Emperor Charles V harbored such claims in the first half of the 16th century. Ferdinand II, who unleashed the Thirty Years' War, was no stranger to this desire. The peace treaty confirmed the principle of “original German freedom”, adopted back in the Middle Ages in relations between the emperor and individual German princes (ranks) of the Empire. Moreover, he significantly expanded the scope of the “freedom” that the princes enjoyed. Previously, they were independent only in matters of domestic policy. Now they have acquired broad independence in the field of foreign policy. The princes received the right to maintain various relations with foreign states with the only limitation - they were forbidden to enter into alliances hostile to the Empire and wage wars against it. Thus, an important step was taken towards the weakening of political ties within the Holy Roman Empire and the acquisition of actual independence by the individual states that were part of it.

The Peace of Westphalia significantly undermined the authority of the Holy Roman Emperors. Previously, the emperor was considered the highest rank among monarchs. He seemed to crown the pyramid of power in Europe. All other monarchs - kings, dukes, counts, princes (including the Grand Duke of Moscow) - stood, as it were, on the lower steps of the feudal ladder. The Peace of Westphalia equalized the rights of the heads of independent states of Europe, who had the title of king, with the emperor. All of them

Regardless of title, they were recognized as bearers of supreme (sovereign) power, the main feature of which was the independence and power of their states. Thus, the Peace of Westphalia dealt a sensitive blow to the remnants of the Middle Ages that remained in relations between states.

At the Peace of Westphalia, Spain recognized the independence of the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland). This state, which arose as a result of the uprising of Northern Dutch Protestants against the rule of Catholic Spain, thus achieved international legal recognition in 1648. In addition to Holland, the Swiss Confederation, which arose back in 1315 during the struggle of rural and urban communities located in the highlands of the Alps against German, French and Italian feudal lords, also received international legal recognition as an independent state. Recognition of the independence of both states was of great importance. They were recognized as sovereign states on a par with monarchies, despite the fact that they were republics. This represented a break with the traditions of the Middle Ages, when republics were considered third-rate states. It is especially important that states that arose not due to dynastic reasons, not at the desire of monarchs, but at the will of the citizens themselves, received international legal recognition. After all, both Holland and Switzerland arose as a result of an uprising and a long struggle of their citizens for freedom and independence. By satisfying their demands, European monarchs actually allowed the possibility of recognizing the right of peoples to self-determination.

The winners of the Thirty Years' War - the countries of the anti-Habsburg coalition - thus received significant territorial and political advantages. France and Sweden especially strengthened their international positions (Sweden even became a member of the Empire with the right to send its delegates to the imperial congress - the Reichstag). Both states were declared guarantors of the implementation of the Treaty of Westphalia. Together with them, the Russian state, which formally did not participate in the Thirty Years' War and did not conclude a peace treaty, was also named among the guarantors of the implementation of the Peace of Westphalia. This indicated the growth of its international influence and recognition by other European states as an equal partner.

However, the defeat of the Habsburgs and the victory of the anti-Habsburg coalition did not at all lead to the establishment of hegemony, or dominance, in Europe by some other country or group of countries. As a result of the Thirty Years' War and the Peace of Westphalia, a certain balance developed, or a balance between

the largest states of that time, in which none of them had a decisive advantage over the others. Therefore, the balance of power began to play a stabilizing role in international relations. It practically deprived the governments of countries pursuing an aggressive foreign policy of hope for a quick and easy victory in a war of aggression. And although the balance of power did not save Europe from new wars, it was an important prerequisite for maintaining the independence and independence of European states, thereby ensuring favorable external conditions for their development.

At the same time, the Peace of Westphalia represented an important stage in the development of international law, i.e. generally accepted customs, norms and rules in relations between states. The peace was signed, and therefore pledged to be implemented by most European states, including the largest and most powerful of them. This by no means guaranteed a cloudless future for the peoples of Europe. However, the presence of clear, generally accepted rules of law made it possible, in the event of wars, to establish the extent of responsibility of individual states and facilitated the search for peace.

The very rules of law adopted in relations between states have also changed. In the Middle Ages, the main role in international relations was played by monarchs, bound together by special bonds of feudal dependence and seniority as lords and vassals. According to the norms established by the Peace of Westphalia, this role passed to sovereign states. This became the name for independent and equal states that pursued independent foreign and domestic policies in accordance with their state interests. The Peace of Westphalia served as the starting point for all later international treaties until the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century.

The Peace of Westphalia was signed by most of the participants in the war, except France and Spain. They continued to fight for dominance in the Southern Netherlands until 1659, when the so-called Peace of the Pyrenees was concluded, according to which France received a number of border territories in the Pyrenees (Roussillon) and in the Netherlands (Artois). The Peace of the Pyrenees also provided for the marriage of the French king Louis XIV with the Spanish infanta Maria Theresa. According to Spanish law, the right to the crown belonged not only to the king's daughter, but also to her husband. Therefore, Spain demanded that Maria Theresa renounce the right of inheritance of any possessions of the Spanish crown. The French, dreaming of the Spanish inheritance, agreed to this demand, but with one condition. For the validity of Maria Theresa's abdication it is necessary

It was possible to pay the infanta's dowry in the amount of 500 thousand Spanish crowns in three installments within strictly designated periods, including on the day of marriage. Since the payment did not take place on the day of the wedding, the French received a pretext for future claims against the Spanish crown.

3. Trade and colonial rivalry

As a result of England's victory over the “Invincible Armada” in 1588, Spain and Portugal (remember, at that time they constituted one state) lost their trade and colonial monopoly. This led to a sharp increase in the colonial expansion of other countries, primarily England and Holland. As a result of the liberation war at the end of the 16th century. Holland became an independent state, whose policy was aimed at promoting trade and navigation, and at increasing its role as the largest center of world trade and world finance. In England in the middle

XVII century a revolution took place, which also brought to power political forces that advocated active trade and colonial expansion.

The main objects of colonial expansion of both states were North America and South Asia. Spaniards, back in the 16th century. conquering central and southern America from the Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Grande to La Plata, did not show much interest in the lands lying north of the Florida Peninsula. Therefore, at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. pioneers and colonialists from other European countries, mainly from Holland, England and France, flocked here. At the beginning of the 17th century. The first English colonies arose on the Atlantic coast of North America (Virginia in 1607, New England in 1620, etc.), on the islands of the Caribbean (St. Kitts in 1623, Barbados in 1625). Gradually, the colonial possessions of small European states were absorbed by the British and French. Back to top

In the 18th century, the British managed to colonize the northeastern coast of America from the island of Newfoundland in the north to the Florida peninsula in the south. The French managed to capture the St. Lawrence River valley, the Great American Lakes, and the Mississippi River.

At the beginning of the 17th century. colonialists from other countries, mainly from Holland, penetrated into India. The Dutch managed to establish control over the sea route from Europe to South Asia, establishing the Cape Colony in southern Africa. They took a number of colonies in India from the Portuguese, including the island of Ceylon (in 1640). In addition, they founded in the first

half of the 17th century a number of colonies in Southeast Asia. Following the Dutch, the British also came to India. In the first half of the 17th century. they captured several cities on the eastern coast of the Hindustan Peninsula (Surat in 1612, Nellur in 1619, Madras in 1639, etc.). And from the second half of the 17th century. The French are also beginning to actively explore India. At the same time, the methods of colonial policy of the British, Dutch and French were similar. Its main instrument was the monopoly East India Companies (English founded in 1600, Dutch in 1602, French in 1664), which received from their governments the exclusive right to trade, navigation, construction of fortresses, administration, conquest of territories, etc. in the colonies.

All this served as a prerequisite for the sharp aggravation of colonial rivalry between England, Holland and France in the second half of the 17th century. Initially, the most acute were colonial and trade contradictions between England and Holland. In 1651, the English Parliament adopted the so-called Navigation Act - a law according to which foreign goods could be imported into England only on ships flying the English flag or the flag of the exporting country. This law caused significant damage to Holland, which at that time was the main maritime carrier. As a result, in 1652, the first trade (or naval) war broke out between England and Holland, which lasted until 1654. It was followed by two others - 1665-1667 and 1672-1674.

However, by the end of the 17th century. The colonial and trade contradictions of these two powers with France, which, mainly during the reign of Louis XIV, became a major maritime and colonial power, came to the fore. Back in the first half of the 17th century. The French founded several colonies in America - New France (Canada), Cayenne, the islands of Newfoundland, Martinique, Guadeloupe, etc., and in Africa - Senegal. Already at the end of this century they captured the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola (Haiti) in the Caribbean Sea and penetrated into India. A large number of large monopoly companies arose for trade with various parts of the world - West and East Indian, Senegalese, Guinean, Levantine (for trade with the Eastern Mediterranean), etc.

The colonial and commercial expansion of France forced England and Holland to unite in order to protect their colonial and maritime interests. As a result of the “Glorious Revolution” of 1688-1689. William of Orange was chosen as the king of England. A personal union arose between the two largest maritime powers of that time -

England and Holland. They saw their task primarily as preventing the implementation of the aggressive plans of Louis XIV on the European continent and in the colonial