What event happened in 1864. Zemstvo reform, judicial reform
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1) All-class court
2) Competitiveness of the parties
4) 3) Independence of the court
Subordination of power to law
1) 8. World Court...
This is a court that decides small matters
2) Criminal court
3) Military court
4) Trial by jury in Russia
1) 9. Method of recruiting the army according to the military reform of the reign of Alexander II:
Universal conscription
2) Recruitment kits
3) Local militia
4) Indelta system
10. Correlate the events of the era of liberal reforms of Alexander II:
1874 - 1) military reform
1864 - 2) judicial and zemstvo reform
1861 - 3) abolition of serfdom
1870 - 4) urban reform
1) 11. Populism is characterized by the following two features:
2) faith in the people
ideas of communal socialism
3) liberalism
4) orientation towards Europe
12. The idea of peasant socialism is characteristic of...:
1) Legal Marxists
2) Cadets
4) 3) Slavophiles
Narodnikov
13. The first social democratic organization in Russia was called: 1) "»
Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class
3) “Black redistribution”
4) “Land and Freedom”
14. The ideological movement that affirms the inevitability and necessity of class struggle and the leading role of the working class (proletariat) in the development of modern society is called...:
1) Liberalism
2) Socialism
4) 3) Historical materialism
Marxism
1) 15. Liberalism is an ideology that is characterized by two characteristic features:
Equality of legal rights
4) 3) Socialization of state property
Private property relations as the basis of the economy
16. Revolutionary democrats include:
2) 1) V.I. Lenin, L.D. Trotsky, N.I. Bukharin
N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev
3) V.M. Purishkevich, K.P. Pobedonostsev
4) I.S. Aksakov, A.S. Khomyakov
17. The main method of struggle of the Narodnaya Volya party was:
2) 1) Propaganda
Terror
3) Parliamentary struggle
4) Strike movement
18. The propaganda direction in populism is represented by:
1) A.I. Herzen
3) 2) M.A. Bakunin
P.L. Lavrov
2) 19. M.A. Bakunin was the leader:
3)
Rebellious trend in populism
4) Legal Marskism
20. Tkachev’s theory of revolution was the theoretical basis:
2) The rebellious trend in populism
3) Conspiratorial trend in populism
4) Conservatism
21. The main reason for the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. was:
1) Balkan crisis
2) Caucasian War
3) The Greek struggle for independence
4) Islamic fundamentalism in southern Russia
22. Members of the Triple Alliance:
1) France, Russia, USA
2) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy
3) Germany, Austria-Hungary, Türkiye
4) Germany, Türkiye, Japan
23. Classical liberal party of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century:
1) Cadets
3) Bolsheviks
24. The Center Party, which supported the government’s reform policies in 1905:
3) “Union of Michael the Archangel”
25. The First State Duma of Russia was convened in:
26. The third June coup was carried out by:
1) Russian officers
2) V.I. Lenin
3) Nicholas II
27. An allocated plot of land without eviction from the village is called:
1) Cut
3) Concession
28. Highlight two forms of land use that peasants could use after the dissolution of the community:
1) Churchyards
2) Khutora
3) Segments
4) Cut
29. The progressive block is organized...:
2) Bolsheviks, progressives and Mensheviks
3) Progressives and Socialist Revolutionaries
4) Reactionaries, conservatives and clerics
30. The main members of the Entente in 1914:
1) Russia, UK, USA
2) Russia, Great Britain, France, Italy
3) Russia, UK, France
4) Germany, Türkiye, Austria-Hungary
31. Time of existence of serfdom:
1) End of the 16th century – 1861
2) 1649 – 1861
3) 1497 – 1861
4) 1547-1906
32. Which 2 points are not curiae for the choice of zemstvos:
1) Landowning
2) Urban
3) Noble
4) Merchant
33. A doctrine whose central postulate is the complete denial of traditions, norms, social principles and authorities is:
1) Radicalism
2) Nihilism
34. Select two political figures who can be classified as legal Marxists:
1) F. Engels
2) M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky
3) P.B. Struve
4) L.D. Trotsky
35. A political direction that defends the value of state and social order, rejection of radical reforms and extremism, focusing on the natural, evolutionary development of society and the preservation of its traditions is called:
1) Nationalism
2) Laborism
3) Conservatism
4) Liberalism
1) Parliament
2) Freedom of conscience
3) Constitution
4) Cancellation of redemption payments
37. What two characteristics are not required for a political party:
1) Government funding
2) Participation in parliamentary activities
3) Ideology
4) Social base
38. Russia concluded a separate peace with Germany:
4) 3.03.1918
DE 06. Russia 1917-1922.
1. Who was elected chairman of the Constituent Assembly of Russia:
1) V.I. Lenin
2) L.B. Kamenev
3) V.M. Chernov
4) L.D. Trotsky
2. Name the date of opening and dispersal of the Constituent Assembly:
3. After the July crisis of the Provisional Government, the head of the provisional government for the first time became:
1) A. Guchkov
2) G. Lvov
3) P. Milyukov
4) A. Kerensky
4. Who headed the Provisional Government in March 1917:
1) P.N. Miliukov
2) A.F. Kerensky
3) A.S. Chkheidze
4) G.E. Lviv
1) cadets
2) Mensheviks
3) Bolsheviks
4) Social Revolutionaries
6. Russia was declared a republic:
7. Event that caused the first crisis of the Provisional Government:
1) Kornilov rebellion
2) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
3) Dispersal of the Constituent Assembly
4) Note P.N. Miliukov on his readiness to wage war to a victorious end
8. Speech by General L.G. Kornilov and his arrest by decision of the Provisional Government occurred:
9. The mutiny of the general, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, who in August 1917 moved troops to Petrograd with the aim of establishing a military dictatorship, went down in history:
1) “Antonovism”
2) " Kornilovism"
3) “Bironovism”
4) dual power
10. The policy of “war communism” is characterized by the concept:
1) Gold ruble
2) Stakhanov movement
3) Cartel
4) surplus appropriation
11. Indicate an event during the Civil War:
1) appointment as head of government A.F. Kerensky
2) Kornilov rebellion
3) Defeat of Kolchak's army
4) Mutiny on the battleship Potemkin
12. The armed uprising of which units in May 1918 spread the civil war to most of the territory of Russia:
1) the army of Admiral A.V. Kolchak
2) Czechoslovak Corps
3) Cossack units A.F. Kerensky and P.A. Krasnova
4) Volunteer Army
13. Surplus appropriation:
1) wage system
2) cash tax from peasants
3) form of universal labor service
4) system of forcible seizure of food from peasants
14. For what purpose were committees of the poor created:
1) carrying out the “red terror”
2) fighting in the rear of the White armies
3) confiscation of valuables from manufacturers and merchants
4) confiscation of grain in the village
15. What did the “Red Guard attack” on capital mean in 1917-1918:
1) the beginning of mass repressions against the bourgeoisie
2) “export” of the world revolution by the Red Army to Europe
3) accelerated nationalization of large, medium and small enterprises
4) attack by the Red Guards on wealthy peasants
16. Establish the sequence of events in the first years of Soviet power:
1) introduction of food dictatorship
2) signing of the Brest-Litovsk Peace
3) formation of the USSR
4) opening of the Constituent Assembly
Sample answer: 4,2,1,3
17. The food dictatorship was introduced in May 1918 with the aim of:
1) confiscation of landowners' lands
2) fight against hunger
3) exit from the war
4) nationalization of property
18. The chronological framework of the new economic policy (NEP) is the period:
1) 1917-1921
2) 1921-1929
3) 1925-1936
4) 1946-1953
19. The purpose of industrialization in the USSR:
1) priority development of light and food industries
2) achieving economic independence
3) creating a base for the development of small peasant farming
4) removing obstacles to the development of foreign trade relations
20. The surplus appropriation system was replaced by a tax in kind in which year:
3) 1921
21. Totalitarianism is characterized by:
1) The presence of a single mass party
2) Reducing the activities of the opposition to a minimum
3) Recognition of the principles of democracy
4) Comprehensive control in all spheres of public and private life of citizens
22. Federation is:
1) a form of government in which the territory is not divided into autonomous parts
2) a union of states creating a single state with common authorities and administration
3) internal self-government of a certain territory of the state
4) creation of federal districts
23. Which of the leaders of the Red Army led the suppression of the “Antonovism” uprising of Tambov and Voronezh peasants in 1920-1921:
1) M.V. Frunze
2) M.N. Tukhachevsky
3) K.E. Voroshilov
4) S.M. Budyonny
24. What event happened in Yekaterinburg in July 1918:
1) murder of G. Rasputin
2) Komuch organization
3) execution of the royal family
4) murder of the German ambassador
25. The measure of the new economic policy (NEP) was:
1) abolition of money circulation
2) complete nationalization of all industry
3) militarization of labor
4) allowing private trade
26. The source of the industrialization of the USSR:
1) foreign loans
2) devaluation of the ruble
3) village robbery
4) loan from commercial banks
27. Complete collectivization of agriculture was completed:
1) a sharp rise in the living standards of the peasantry
2) establishment of private ownership of land
3) transition to the policy of “war communism”
4) liquidation of individual peasant farming
28. The transformation of agriculture in the USSR in the late 1920s and early 1930s is:
1) socialization
2) nationalization
3) collectivization
4) concentration
29. I.V. Stalin announced the end of the NEP in:
2) 1929
30. Indicate the correct chronological sequence of foreign policy events of the 1920-1930s:
1) the beginning of the period of diplomatic recognition of the USSR
2) Treaty of Ranala with Germany
3) Entry of the USSR into the League of Nations
4) Soviet-Finnish war
Sample answer: 2,1,3,4
31. Dual power reflected two alternatives in the revolution:
1) liberal
2) conservative
3) radical
4) neo-populist
32. The Provisional Government, trying to transform the political system of Russia, assumed:
1) proclaim Russia a republic
2) establish a bicameral parliament
3) convene the Constituent Assembly
4) introduce an interim constitution
33. Order No. 1 of the Petrograd Soviet was carried out by:
1) dissolution of the army
2) election of the command staff
3) reorganization of the army
4) abolition of titles and salutation
34. The Constituent Assembly was convened in:
35. Indicate the position shared by the Provisional Government::
1) introduce an 8-hour working day
2) radical democratization is needed in the army
3) hold elections to the Constituent Assembly
36. When was the coalition Provisional Government created with the participation of representatives Petrosovet::
2) in May 1917
4) in May 1918
37. How did the Bolshevisation of the Soviets manifest itself - a characteristic phenomenon of the autumn of 1917:
1) in adopting a decree on the arrest of the leaders of the civil war against the revolution
2) adoption of the constitution of the RSFSR
4) in the dissolution of the constituent assembly
38. The reason for the start of a large-scale civil war in Soviet Russia was (elk):
1) transition to a new economic policy
2) Lena execution at the Gold Mines
3) introduction of food dictatorship
4) creation of the Triple Alliance
39. Social and economic policy of the Soviet state during the period 1918-1920. got the name:
1) liberal
2) communist
3) new economic
4) " war communism»
40. The views of the participants in the “White Movement” were ambiguous, but the main ones stood out:
1) military dictatorship
2) restoration of the monarchy
3) convening of the Constituent Assembly
4) all of the above are true
41. Match the events of the Civil War and the names of the leaders of the white movement who took part in them:
1) A.V. Kolchak 1) Southwestern Front
2) A.I. Denikin 2) white Crimea
3) N.N. Yudenich 3) Eastern Front
4) P.V. Wrangel 4) white North-West
Standard answer: 1)-3), 2)-1), 3)-4), 4)-2).
42. Place the events in chronological order:
1) attempt on V.I. Lenin
2) British landing in Murmansk
3) proclamation of A.V. Kolchak "supreme ruler of Russia"
4) armed action of the Czechoslovak Corps
Sample answer: 2,4,1,4
43. The first period of the civil war covers the time:
2) social
3) agricultural
4) religious
45. Indicate an event during the Civil War:
1) Kornilov mutiny
2) Creation of the Entente
3) Manchurian operation
4) Mutiny of the Czechoslovak Corps
46. During the civil war in 1919, a directive was adopted by the organizing bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) on the decossackization of the Cossacks. What is its essence:
1) about the revival of the Cossacks
2) Cossacks support the throne
3) the Cossacks have no merits before the people and the state
4) mass decossackization of Cossacks and their families
47. The social and political policy of the Bolsheviks during the civil war is characterized by:
1) tax in kind
2) complete freedom of trade
3) expanding the rights of peasants to land
4) surplus appropriation
48. After the October Revolution in Russia, the transition of enterprises and sectors of the economy into state ownership began, which was called:
1) integration
2) nationalization
3) concentration
4) confiscation
50. detachments of workers and peasants created in Russia in 1918-1921. for carrying out surplus appropriation, were called:
1) zemstvos
2) workers' faculties
3) food detachments
4) committees
51. Committees of the poor:
1) participated in collectivization in the 30s. XX century
2) were engaged in land redistribution in the spring of 1918 G.
3) drew up orders to deputies of the State Duma
4) participated in the resettlement movement
52.Two concepts relate to the period of the new economic policy:
1) food detachment
2) confiscation of landowners' lands
3) tax in kind
4) sales crisis
53. What is a “concession”:
1) Government loan
2) Anti-inflation measure
3) Enterprise with foreign capital participation
4) Underground political organization
54. The method based on the comparison of costs and results of economic activity is called:
1) integration
2) cooperation
3) self-financing
4) creation of monopolistic associations
55. What do the words “Philosophical Steamer” mean:
1) trip of a delegation of the Soviet state to negotiate the resumption of trade relations
2) uninterrupted supply of food to the city
3) withdrawal from the country of people who do not agree with the policies of the Soviet government
56. Autonomy was granted by the provisional government:
1) Ukraine
3) Finland
4) Transcaucasia
57. Kogo I.V. Stalin declared the leader of the “right deviation”:
1) L.B. Kameneva
2) N.I. Bukharin
3) S.M. Kurova
4) L.D. Trotsky
58. Attempt on the life of V.I. Lenin and M.S. Uritsky in August 1918 became the reason for:
1) Red terror
2) Mutiny of the Czechoslovak Corps
3) The beginning of foreign interventions
4) The beginning of the rebellion of the first Socialist Revolutionaries
59. The creation of a one-party system led to:
1) changes in the internal policy of the Bolsheviks
2) dispersal of the Constituent Assembly
3) the departure of the Bolsheviks from the socialist parties
4) the departure of democratic public organizations from the Bolsheviks
In connection with the abolition of serfdom, the question of a new organization of local government arose. After the liberation of the peasants, the need arose to create new non-estate local government bodies.
On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions.” These were elected bodies of provincial and district self-government, consisting of representatives of all classes.
According to the regulations of 1864, zemstvo institutions were introduced in 33 provinces of the Russian Empire. They consisted of administrative and executive management bodies. The administrative bodies were elected district and provincial zemstvo assemblies, whose deputies were called “vowels”. Elections to district zemstvos were held in three curiae (groups of voters): 1) landowners, 2) urban voters, 3) elected from peasant societies. If in the first two curias the elections were direct, then in the peasant curia they were threefold: first, the village assembly elected representatives to the volost assembly, at which electors were elected, and then the district congress of electors elected the vowels for the district zemstvo assembly.
The district zemstvo assembly met under the chairmanship of the local leader of the nobility and elected from its midst as an executive body the district zemstvo council (with a chairman at the head, who was then approved by the governor) and “provincial zemstvo vowels”, who made up the provincial zemstvo assembly, which met under the chairmanship of the provincial leader of the nobility . The latter elected the provincial zemstvo council, the chairman of which was subject to approval by the Minister of Internal Affairs.
The “vocals” of zemstvo assemblies gathered for annual sessions, which were held openly, and anyone could attend them. They did not receive any remuneration for their activities, unlike members of zemstvo councils, who acted permanently and received an annual salary.
Zemstvos were deprived of any political rights, their activities were limited only to economic issues: the organization and maintenance of schools, hospitals, road construction, care for the development of local trade and industry. They supported zemstvo doctors, teachers, veterinarians, agronomists and other employees who made up the so-called “third estate” of zemstvos. These bodies played a huge role in addressing local needs. Concerns about public education and the organization of medical care came to the fore of their activities. The zemstvo doctor became a symbol of tireless and selfless service to the common people.
On June 16, 1870, Alexander II approved the “City Regulations,” which introduced all-class local self-government in cities, built on the same principles as zemstvo. According to this law, new governing bodies were introduced in 509 cities of Russia - city councils elected for four years. In turn, city councils elected permanent executive bodies - city councils and the mayor. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of both the city duma and the city government.
Men from the age of 25 had the right to vote, also divided into three curiae according to the amount of taxes paid to the city treasury. Each curia elected the same number of “vowels” to the city duma. It is not difficult to guess that under such a system the vote of a small group of wealthy taxpayers was equal to the vote of several hundred medium-sized and several thousand small ones. The competence of self-government bodies in cities fully corresponded to the competence of zemstvo institutions.
Despite the limitations of these transformations, they were a great step forward, since they replaced the previous class system of government with new principles based on the norms of bourgeois law.
"REVOLUTION FROM ABOVE"
It was precisely when zemstvo institutions were introduced in districts and provinces that the most important question was being resolved: should there be an All-Russian zemstvo? If this had happened, a parliament would have been born, albeit a weak one, largely deliberative, and Speransky’s dream would have come true half a century late - autocracy would have been at least slightly limited by the legislative body (remember the Bulygin Duma, which was similar in idea, which was drafted in the summer of 1905) .
Let us allow ourselves some fantasy: in the All-Russian Zemstvo, the landowners, the bourgeoisie, even to some extent the peasantry, commoners would gain positive and negative political experience, would lay the foundations (even if not formally, but in fact) of future political parties...
The autocracy would, to a certain extent, limit itself and at the same time expand its own base and support. Exactly as it was done before the peasant reform, the creation of the Editorial Commissions - only there were exclusively nobles, and there would also be representatives of other classes.
It was then that an important debate arose: all-estate self-government or non-estate self-government? In other words, a separate vote for each estate (and, of course, the nobles are given the largest number of deputy seats) or simply the election of one deputy from a certain number of residents (and then, naturally, the peasants would have the majority),
Representatives of various social groups, from moderate Slavophiles to the democrat Herzen, defended classlessness. Well-known reform figure A.I. Koshelev almost convinced the tsar that strong public self-government was the only antidote to bureaucracy: “Bureaucracy,” he prophesied, “contains within itself the source of past, present and (we hope, not for long) future disasters for Russia.”
Ivan Aksakov proposed “that the nobility be allowed to solemnly, in the face of all of Russia, commit the great act of destroying themselves as a class.”
Of course, these ideas did not pass. However, like purely noble claims to strengthen their political influence,
Alexander II did not want to give parliament to some nobles, but he was afraid of all classes.
FUNCTIONS OF ZEMSTVOS SPECIFIED IN THE REGULATIONS OF 1864
I. Management of property, capital and monetary collections of the zemstvo.
II. Construction and maintenance of buildings belonging to the zemstvo, other structures and communications routes maintained at the expense of the zemstvo.
III. Measures to ensure the people's food supply.
IV. Management of zemstvo charities and other charity measures; ways to stop begging; care for the building of churches.
V. Management of mutual zemstvo property insurance.
VI. Care for the development of local trade and industry.
VII. Participation, mainly in economic terms and within the limits determined by law, in the care of public education, public health and prisons.
VIII. Assistance in preventing livestock deaths, as well as in protecting grain crops and other plants from destruction by locusts, gophers and other harmful insects and animals.
IX. Fulfillment of the needs of military and civil administration assigned to the zemstvo, and participation in matters of postal service.
X. Distribution of those state monetary fees, the distribution of which throughout the province and districts is entrusted to zemstvo institutions, on the basis of laws issued or special orders approved by the highest authority.
XI. Assignment, allocation, collection and expenditure, on the basis of the Charter on Zemstvo duties, local fees, to meet the zemstvo needs of the province or district.
XII. Submission, through the Provincial authorities, to the highest government of information and conclusions on subjects relating to local economic benefits and needs of the Province or district, and a petition on these subjects, also through the Provincial authorities; delivery, according to the requirements of the highest government agencies and the heads of the provinces, information related to the zemstvo economy.
XIII. Conducting elections for members and other positions in zemstvo institutions and assigning amounts for the maintenance of these institutions.
XIV. Cases that will be entrusted to zemstvo institutions on the basis of special charters, regulations or resolutions.
PERSECUTORS OF ZEMSTVO AND ANNIBAL OF LIBERALISM
“The zemstvo reform was one of those concessions that were repulsed from the autocratic government by a wave of public excitement and revolutionary onslaught...
So, from the very beginning, the zemstvo was condemned to become the fifth wheel in the cart of Russian public administration, a wheel allowed by the bureaucracy only insofar as its omnipotence was not violated, and the role of deputies from the population was limited to bare practice, simple technical execution of the range of tasks outlined all the same bureaucracy. The zemstvos did not have their own executive bodies, they had to act through the police, the zemstvos were not connected with each other, the zemstvos were immediately placed under the control of the administration. And, having made such a harmless concession, the government, the very next day after the introduction of the zemstvo, began to systematically constrain and limit it: the all-powerful bureaucratic clique could not get along with the elected all-class representation and began to constrain it in every possible way.”
JUDICIAL REFORM
On November 20, 1864, new judicial statutes were published. They provided for the lack of class status of the court, the equality of all classes before the law, adversarial and publicity of the trial. In civil cases, the parties or their representatives appeared before the judges, and in criminal cases, on the one hand, the prosecutor-prosecutor, and on the other, the defense lawyer of the accused, and his presence at the trial was mandatory. If the accused was unable to pay for a lawyer, the court appointed him a free defense lawyer. The institution of forensic investigators was also introduced - special officials who conducted preliminary investigations in criminal cases.
The judicial organization was also reformed. World and crown courts were introduced. “Justices of the peace,” elected by district zemstvo assemblies and approved by the Senate, considered small civil claims in amounts up to 500 rubles. The next instance of the magistrate's court was the congresses of magistrates, who elected a chairman from among themselves. It was possible to appeal the decision of the magistrate.
The crown court had two instances: the first instance was the district court, which acted, as a rule, within one province, which made up the judicial district, the second was the judicial chamber, which united several judicial districts and was divided into criminal and civil departments. The highest court was the Senate.
District courts and judicial chambers were established for more important criminal and civil cases. 12 jurors could take part in sessions of district courts and judicial chambers, selected by lot from “local inhabitants of all classes” and recorded in special lists. They determined the guilt or innocence of the accused, and the measure of punishment was determined by the judge. Such a decision by the district court was generally considered final. The court was the court of appeal if the district court passed a verdict without the participation of a jury.
The Senate, as the highest authority, had the right to cassate (reconsider or cancel a sentence) court decisions in the event of a violation of the legal order of legal proceedings or the discovery of new circumstances in a criminal or civil case. Members of the Senate, chairmen and members of district courts and judicial chambers were approved by the emperor. All appointed members of court sessions enjoyed the important right of irremovability, that is, they could not be dismissed except at their own request.
Supervision over the legality of the actions of judicial institutions was entrusted to the chief prosecutor of the Senate, prosecutors of the judicial chambers and district courts, who were subordinate to the Minister of Justice and had their own staff of assistants - fellow prosecutors.
The effect of the new judicial statutes extended to 44 Russian provinces. The reorganization of judicial administration was finally completed only in 1896.
Judicial reform was one of the most consistent and successful political transformations of that period. The new courts soon gained great popularity among the population, and the participation of eloquent lawyers in the trials attracted a lot of outside public to their trials. Confused by the liberalism of the new courts, in 1872 Alexander II removed from their jurisdiction cases of state political crimes (which, by the way, was greatly facilitated by the terrorist activities of the “populists”), which were transferred to the “special presences” of the Senate or judicial chambers.
KNIGHTS OF THE LIVING WORD
Free-thinking people, but not so advanced and active as to rise to the revolutionary struggle against despotism and tyranny, went to the bar with the expectation of using the freedom of speech granted to it to expose the vices of the existing system. V. D. Spasovich in 1873, when tsarism had not yet begun to shred the rights of the legal profession and all the illusions of the first lawyers were still alive, had certain grounds to declare on behalf of his corporation: “We are, to a certain extent, knights of the word of the living, free, freer now, than in print; a word that the most zealous, fierce chairmen will not calm down, because by the time the chairman thinks about stopping you, the word has already galloped three miles ahead and cannot be returned. As a result, the Russian legal profession of the 60s and 70s became a concentration of judicial figures who could compete with any European celebrities... Many of them left lucrative public service for the sake of the legal profession, and seven left the prosecutor’s office.”
ON THE. Trinity. Tsarism is on trial by the progressive public. M., 1979
The trial is coming!
In the 60-70s of the 19th century, a number of reforms were carried out: peasant, military, urban, zemstvo, and judicial. All reforms were caused by an urgent need, which was already recognized by the “tops,” that is, the ruling power.
The state's judicial system was in a particularly deplorable state: the court acted on the legislation of Peter I, Catherine II, and even in some cases on the Council Code of 1649.
The pre-reform court was very outdated; it was divided into many judicial bodies: courts for peasants, townspeople, nobles, a commercial court, a conscience court, a boundary court, and other courts. In addition, provincial boards, police bodies, etc. also performed judicial functions.
The pre-reform court was characterized by bribery, low legal literacy of judges, and limitations (courts decided cases by considering only written investigative materials).
Preparations for judicial reform have been going on for more than 10 years. Back in 1861, more than a dozen bills were presented to the State Council with proposals for changes to the judicial system, and in 1862 a draft reform was sent to the courts, which was created by a commission headed by State Secretary of the State Council S.I. Zarudny.
The project consisted of three parts: judicial system, civil and criminal proceedings. What was new in this project?
Lack of class.
Abolition of the formal evidence system.
Separation of the court from the administration.
Establishment of competition and publicity.
Separation of the judicial power from the accusatory power.
Introduction of the institution of jurors and the legal profession.
Establishment of judicial institutions.
Charter of criminal proceedings.
Charter of civil proceedings.
Charter on punishments imposed by justices of the peace.
According to these statutes, two judicial systems were created: local (volost, magistrate courts, justices of the peace and their congresses) and general (district, created for several counties), judicial chambers for criminal and civil cases, which extended their activities to several provinces, cassation (criminal and civil) departments of the Senate.
But in the spiritual, military, commercial, and peasant spheres, their own jurisdictions operated.
Justices of the peace. They were elected by district zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. World District consisted of a county and its constituent cities. It was divided into world sites with the activities of magistrates in them. Congresses of justices of the peace were obliged to consider cassation complaints and protests and finally decide cases that were initiated by local magistrates.
Activities of justices of the peace
They had jurisdiction over cases “On less important crimes and misdemeanors” with sanctions: short-term arrest (up to 3 months), imprisonment in a workhouse for up to 1 year, monetary penalties in an amount not exceeding 300 rubles.
In the civil law sphere, they were entrusted with the consideration of cases on personal obligations and contracts (in the amount of up to 300 rubles), cases related to compensation for damage in an amount not exceeding 500 rubles, claims for insult and insult, cases on establishing rights of ownership.
District courts were established for several counties. Consisted of the chairman of the court and members of the court.
Jury trial
Cases were proposed for their trial “on crimes and misdemeanors entailing penalties associated with the deprivation of all rights of the estate, as well as all or some special rights and benefits.”
Persons aged from 25 to 70 years old who have a residence qualification (2 years) could become jurors. Priests, professional lawyers, teachers, military personnel, hired workers and servants could not serve as jurors.
Institute of Investigators
It was established at the district courts; investigators, under the supervision of the prosecutor's office, were supposed to conduct preliminary investigations of crimes in the areas that were assigned to them.
Important in reform: She separated the preliminary investigation from the judicial investigation. The investigation was divided into general (preliminary, without charges) and special (formal, with charges).
Courthouse building
Trial chambers
They were entrusted with cases of complaints (protests) against the verdicts of the district court, cases of state and official crimes in the 1st instance. Cases were considered with the participation of:
provincial and district leaders of the nobility;
mayor of a provincial town;
volost foreman.
The judicial chambers were the court of appeal in cases of district courts considered without the participation of jurors. They could re-examine an already decided case.
Senate cassation departments
They considered complaints and protests about violations of laws, requests for review of sentences (based on newly discovered circumstances) that had entered into legal force, and cases of official crimes.
A few years later, in 1872, a special presence of the Senate was also established, which considered political matters of special importance. The political trials of the 1870s showed that the court had ceased to serve as a support for the existing system in Russia. This was especially clear in the acquittal of Vera Zasulich, who shot the St. Petersburg mayor F.F. Trepov. The jury completely acquitted Zasulich. Therefore, a series of legislative acts followed that changed the Charters of 1864.
The Senate departments were cassation bodies for all local and general courts of Russia. They could consider any case decided in the lower courts in violation of order.
In addition, a new institute was created - advocacy The governing body of the bar association was the Council of Sworn Attorneys.
System of notary offices
It was created for processing transactions and certifying business papers. The system was established in provincial and district cities.
The importance of judicial reform
The judicial reform of 1864 was the most consistent and progressive.
She claimed
- Equality of citizens before the law.
- The irremovability of judges and their independence from the administration.
- Publicity of proceedings.
- Adversarial proceedings (prosecution-defense);
- Establishment of the Bar (sworn attorneys);
- Establishment of an institute of jurors to consider complex criminal cases.
- Creation of a system of fast and free magistrates' courts.
As we can see, judicial reform was a significant and progressive step.
The Russian judicial system according to the reform of 1864
But she had disadvantages and limitations associated with
The competence of the jury;
- a special procedure for bringing officials to trial;
-relative (and not complete) independence of judges from the administration (the Minister of Justice appointed judges at his own discretion);
-preservation of class courts (for peasants, clergy, senior officials and the military).
1864 is characterized as the result of a crisis in Russian society. The defeat in the Crimean War in 1856 formed the preconditions for the creation of a revolutionary situation. Assessing what is happening in the country, Alexander II understands the need for reforms in the country. The judicial reform of 1864 changed the feudal system in the state. This was significant progress in the development of Russian society.
The pre-reform judicial structure is characterized by confusion, complexity of procedural requirements, lack of legal profession, jury, a large number of authorities, red tape, bribery, and bureaucracy.
In feudal Russia at that time, narrow-class direct dependence on the administration dominated. Numerous and varied authorities were distinguished by the inquisitorial nature of the process, which was based on a formal evidentiary theory. The judicial reform of 1864 brought significant changes to this structure.
The transformations reflected the interests of the bourgeoisie - a class that needed to strengthen its position. This could only be achieved through equalization, albeit formal, of everyone before the court. Thus, the judicial reform of 1864 affirmed the foundations of bourgeois legality. The transformations were manifested primarily in the introduction of the legal profession, the involvement of juries, and the reorganization of the prosecutor's office. The changes implied a new organization of authorities and the
An effective and original system was formed. The judicial statutes of 1864 contributed to the development of this structure. Thus, the new system had two subsystems, which were united by a supreme body - the Senate. The structure included magistrates and general courts, these branches, in turn, included bodies of special jurisdiction (commercial, volost, military and others), the formation of which was provided for by other legislative acts.
The judicial reform of 1864 contributed to the creation of a system of general courts. The district authorities were considered the first instance. In each district, a court was established to consider criminal as well as civil cases that were not within the jurisdiction of magistrates.
At the same time, in the process of transformation, a new system was formed in
Thus, a new idea and understanding of justice and legality was formed in the state.
Judicial statutes in pre-revolutionary Russia were the laws approved in 1864, November 20:
- The law of judicial establishments transferred power to congresses of judges, district, world dispensations, chambers and the Senate.
- Charter on punishments imposed by magistrates' courts. This code defined crimes against the political and social system, the order of government, and other things. These offenses were separated from the “Code on Correctional and Criminal Punishments.”
- The law and code determined the competence of the bodies to consider relevant cases. In addition, the law established the order of production in world and general systems, general provisions. Based on the code, the main
- Charter on civil proceedings. The Civil Procedure Code distinguished between the conduct of cases in general bodies and in judicial-administrative and world settlements.
As a result of the reforms carried out, not only the judicial structure has changed. New, bourgeois-democratic principles of conducting trials were formed, which included competition, publicity, and orality. The creation of some bodies was carried out using an elective system. A fairly clear structure of the courts was also formed.
This year the Russian-Circassian (Caucasian) war, which lasted 100 years, ended. The year 1864 was very eventful with events that were important for millions of people in the country, many of which are still significant today. But first things first.
The Liberator and his reforms
This is how Emperor Alexander II began to be called because he abolished serfdom in 1861. This was only one, albeit extremely important, event for the Russian Empire, which was mainly peasant at that time. But the Liberator went down in Russian history not only because of him, but also as an autocratic ruler who was not afraid to carry out other large-scale reforms:
Such large-scale reforms carried out by Alexander II resolved many long-standing, even painful, socio-economic problems that hampered the active development of the Russian Empire, cleared the way for capitalism in the country, and the possibility of creation increased significantly.
War and Peace
In 1864, in the Kbaada tract, where today the village of Krasnaya Polyana is located in the resort city of Sochi, on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, a military parade of the Russian army was held in honor of the end of the Russian-Circassian War. In parallel with the flight, the eviction of the local population to the Ottoman Empire, which in every possible way fueled the war with Russia, the settlement of this region by Russian families took place. Thus, according to historical data, in 1864, 470 thousand unreconciled highlanders fled abroad, and just over 14 thousand Russian families settled.
In May 1864, Russian troops suppressed a new uprising that began the previous year on the territory of the Kingdom of Poland, Lithuania and Right-Bank Ukraine. For active participation, armed resistance, murder of officials and civilians, 128 people were executed, 12.5 thousand were deported mainly to Siberia, 800 were sent to hard labor.
In addition to military and pacifying events, many important but peaceful events took place in the life of the huge empire in 1864:
- In Moscow, near the Garden Ring, the first zoological garden in the Russian Empire was opened, the future Moscow Zoo, which today is one of the ten most visited in the world.
- L.N. Tolstoy, while hunting, broke his arm. It did not heal properly, so I had to have an operation in Moscow using chloroform. While his hand was healing, the great writer could not do his favorite things - writing and hunting.
- The Moscow Archaeological Society was founded. The main goals and objectives are the study of predominantly Russian archeology. In addition to these researches, members of the society intended to actively engage in numismatics, protection and restoration of ancient monuments, which was what followed in the future.
Summing up, we can say with confidence that 1864 was an important year in the history of Russia, something of a turning point. Many decisions made then, the events that took place influenced its further development and the fate of its descendants.
